الفهرس 
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Abstract
The endocrine system is a control system of ductless glands that secrete chemical messengers called hormones that circulate within the body via the bloodstream to affect distant cells within specific organs. Hormones act as ”messengers,” and are carried by the blood stream to different cells in the body, which interpret these messages and act on them. Endocrine glands are distributed throughout the human and animal body might be exposed to cyclophosphamide (CYP) and/or ionizing γ radiation (IR) during treatment of several tumors. Cyclophosphamide, a chemotherapeutic alkylating agent, and IR are well known to induce pathological damage to several organs. Sodium thiosulfate (STS), a donor of (H2S), is a water-soluble inorganic sodium salt that has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. The experimental rats’ groups received STS (400 mg/kg b.w. for 14 days, i.p.) before treatment with CYP and/or IR, except the normal control group rats received 0.5 mL of normal saline, i.p. The other groups were then treated with CYP (50 mg/kg/week for 3 weeks, i.p.) or exposed to IR (3 Gy/week for 3 weeks, up to a total cumulative dose of 9 Gy). Then, during CYP and/or IR exposure, all groups received STS three times per week for three consecutive weeks. STS reduced reactive oxygen species (ROS), malondialdehyde (MDA) and elevated superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), reduced glutathione (GSH) and glutathione transferase (GST). (STS) also increased the levels of luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), testosterone, and thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine (T4), and insulin. In addition to the significant decrease in thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), Cortisol, Aldosterone, Amylase, Lipase, Glucose, and angiotensin I (ANG I) levels. Furthermore, STS reduced the levels of extracellular signal-kinase (ERK), c-N-kinase (JNK), caspase-3, tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), nuclear factor kappa beta (NF-κβ), and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2).This study found that STS had a protective effect, as evidenced by reduced oxidative stress and apoptosis, as well as improved histopathological damage in endocrine glands. Conclusion: The present study affords evidence that cyclophosphamide and/or ionizing γ radiation-induced endocrine gland toxicity are accompanied by pathological alterations and oxidative damage, as evidenced by ROS and MDA levels concurrently with reduced hormone and enzyme levels and other antioxidant parameters. In contrast to the numerous serious side effects of chemotherapy and radiotherapy, administration of sodium thiosulfate (STS) as a donor of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) has protective and therapeutic effects on endocrine glands, the liver, and the kidney. STS is a promising molecule for the development of new medications.