الفهرس 
Anatomy of the Spinal Cord and Spinal CanalOnly 14 pages are availabe for public view
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Abstract
Spinal anesthesia in lower abdominal surgery is almost now preferred to general anesthesia, due to its intra and postoperative antinociceptive effect, its lower incidence of hemodynamic fluctuation compared to general anesthesia, its considerable effect in reducing intraoperative bleeding and postoperative thrmoboembolic complications, and good control of postoperative pain.
The key feature of performing subarachnoid block is combining appropriate technique with a three-dimensional understanding and tactile appreciation of anatomy. Also, the understanding of the pharmacology of local anesthetics is a must to be aware of the effect and adverse effects of each and how to manage if any adverse effect occurred.
The purpose of this study prolong the duration of spinal anesthesia by adding dexmedetomidine or clonidine or fentanyl to the intrathecal bupivacaine compare hemodynamic changes as well as the onset and duration of sensory and motor blockade, level of sedation and post operative analgesia.
Eighty, ASA I and II, 25-55 years old patients scheduled for elective lower abdominal operations of an expected duration over -90min were enrolled in the study.
Summary
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They were randomized immediat